1. Introduction
In the second decade of 21st century, with the COVID-19, the world witnessed an accelerated shifts in urban design and housing models. Long held doctrines and discourses evolved, with some older theories also come-back. In this period, marked by the possibility of future pandemics, and heightened the climate-change concerns, placed sustainability, and health at the forefront of urban planning. The Climate-change issues and sustainability considered main problematic for many years; later pandemic played significant role cities’ transformation. The restrictions led people to re-evaluate their work and living environments. Also, there is growing demand for airier, greener, more spacious, and healthier living spaces. Unexpectedly, the pandemic acted as a catalyst for rethinking city planning, emphasizing flexibility, resilience, and sustainability in urban design. This transformation aligns with the ongoing global shift toward addressing climate-change challenges while preparing cities for future uncertainties first appears temporary now permanent. (
Figures 2-3)This article aims to highlight the effects of the pandemic in the 2020s thought to temporary, its effects are still reverberating, and the fundamental changes in housing design and urban planning. In the pandemic period the renovation of Welwyn Garden city in England, which was a phenomenon, has become a hot topic very short time. (
Figures 1-4) Thus, it focuses on the garden city model, an early 20th century concept that has come-back and gained popularity all over the world with the COVID-19. (
Figure 4)
In this context, a case study is also given on garden-cities in Istanbul also including their evolution during the pandemic. The research aims to offer innovative perspectives on long-standing housing problems by revisiting and reinterpreting past urban theories and doctrines. It argues that lessons learned from the garden-city model can inform modern responses to pandemics and other urban health crises. These ideas can contribute to healthier, more sustainable living environments. This study is intended to serve as a resource for future research and provide valuable insights for policy makers, architects, planners, and researchers working on urban planning and housing.
In the ongoing climate issues and environment debates since 1992, people confronted an unexpected situation occurred in 2020, the COVID-19. The idea of designing a more livable environment with sustainable settlements focused on human, and housing concerns was first stated at the Rio, in 1992, and later in Istanbul, in 1996 and finally in Paris Agreement, 2016
. The pandemic this phenomenon was considered as a temporary and their effects was first underestimated and later its influences became radical and transformative consequences the people’s living and working norms and patterns also housing ideas and models. This situation also, reflected the housing models and typologies, and including real estate market
| [2] | Balemi, N., Füss, R., Weigand, A., (2021), Covid-19’s Impact on Real Estate Markets: Review and Outlook. Published by, Axel&Springer. Acceseed, 08, June, 2023. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34765078 |
[2]
. The global warming and recent pandemic have forced cities new and urgent measures some major cities like New York, London, Paris, also Istanbul the pandemic to forge ahead with urgent urban plannings. The recent pandemic brings the question of infectious diseases on the center and raises inquiries for future plannings, and the development of healthy environments must be central to architecture and urbanism in the imminent
| [3] | Forsyth, A., (2020), What Role Do Plan and Design Play In a Pandemic? News – Harvard’s Graduate School of Design 2020. Accessed, 20 August, 2022. |
[3]
. The infectious diseases changed living and working norms and conditions in cities that we know since the modern architecture and planning. Indeed, the “urban” has been defined as “a place of encounter, assembly, simultaneity”
| [4] | Lefebvre H., (1970), The Urban Revolution, Transformation, by Robert Bononno. Minneapolis, MN University of Minnesota Press. |
[4]
. The popular idea once living in the city centers which also known as socialization area for crowd was about the change after the COVID-19. The implications social distance and isolation affected the people who clustered in their homes long days which enhanced to effects of pandemic. The COVID-19, new alternatives of living and working like; hybrid, and remote working, brought the end of metropolitan life and accelerated the idea living in the countryside or close small towns and villages as well as the living like garden-cities settlements in the out of the cities. In these period people witnessed the decreased vast population of America’s biggest cities and their moved to out of the city or small towns
. This newly developed circumstance in has driven escape from big cities to the less-density suburbia or vicinity of small towns
. The searching new lifestyle, after the COVID-19 led people lived in the big cities re-think the living in garden-cities, as a new living possibility, and housing models presented as modern, airy, sunny, and greener outside the city at the beginning of the 20th century.
The garden-cities, as first introduced in England by E. Howard, was considered nearly a century along the 20
th century one of the most significant housing models of architecture and urban planning. The garden-cities, this old idea thought should be an integral part of the discipline of architecture has not been brought up many years. Indeed, specifically, no historian or architect before systematically explored the impact of environmental engineering
| [7] | Howard, E., (2008), Garden Cities To-Morrow, Biblio-B, London. |
| [8] | Banham, R. (1969), “Architecture of the Well-tempered Environment”; University of Chicago Press, Chicago. |
[7, 8]
. This garden-city model with the growing interest in green urbanism the first version of this model was available Ebenezer Howard, with the book, 1902, entitled
Garden Cities of To-morrow, his political, and social agenda has recently made a come-back
| [9] | Howard, E., (2008), Reprint 1902/1989). Tomorrow, A Peaceful Path to Real Reform. Garden Cities of Tomorrow; ATC Books/Faber and Faber, London. |
[9]
. Since the early 20
th century E. Howard‘s English garden-cities continued to be planned in the out of the cities, in green-areas considered ideal houses that were beneficial for human life, and health, with gardens and sunlight
| [8] | Banham, R. (1969), “Architecture of the Well-tempered Environment”; University of Chicago Press, Chicago. |
| [10] | Lehmann, S., (2011), What is Green Urbanism? Holistic Principles To Transform Cities For Sustainable. 4thInternational Conference of Contemporary Affairs in Architecture and Urbanism. |
[8, 10]
. (
Figure 1) Since their first appearance, garden-cities have been widely used in many cities around the world, from England to Australia and America.
This is the urban dynamic of the old garden-city idea also coincided with COVID-19 measures and guidelines, such as social distance and living in neighborhood, in close quarters, and the new spatial requirements of living and working patterns that emerged during the pandemic. The garden-cities introduced an idea a satellite form of living developed outside the city. In the beginning of the suburbanization of London was an increasing problem which E. Howard endeavored to solve with his garden-city model, which to end urban sprawl by the vertical inhibition of land speculation due to the land being held in trust, and the inclusion of agricultural areas on the city outskirts. These satellite communities a spatially independent and symbolized a greener and sunny life in nature surrounding the central city with greenbelts escape from the congested urban form of the city. These living spaces are aimed to environmentally and “nature” friendly settlements with greener and sunnier living outside the crowded centers, with its own core independently. Also, pandemic oriented model, it is not the only reason a radical change to search for new housing and living models in the green, sunny areas, also car-free, zero carbon emission, quiet neighborhoods. Aimed to new and healthy living styles led to return houses like E. Howard's garden-city models, and car-free urban arrangements with new pedestrian, and bicycle ways reminiscent of the ideas of the old garden-cities were reinstated.
However, this model has always maintained its place, despite periodic planning changes over the years. Before the pandemic, there has been an interest among researchers in investigating syntactic relationships between nature and humans
| [11] | Asfour K., (2019),: “Healing Architecture: A Spatial Experience Praxis”. Archnet-IJAR: International Journal of Architectural Research. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1108/ARCH-03-2019-0055 |
| [12] | Grierson, D., (2019), An application of measuring visual and non-visual sensorial experiences of nature for children within primary school spaces: Child–nature–distance case studies in Glasgow, Scotland. Archnet-IJAR: International Journal of Architectural Research2019. Accessed August, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1108/ARCH-05-2019-0139 |
| [13] | Rice, L., (2020), “The Nature and Extent of Healthy Architecture: The Current State of Progress”. Archnet-IJAR: International Journal of Architectural Research. 13(2): 244–259. https://doi.org/10.1108/ARCH-11-2018-0005 Accessed, January, 18, 2023. |
[11-13]
. By the 1990s, when the climate concerns first emerged this idea already also aligned with the sustainable principles had an ecological background in the history of architectural design world. E. Howard’s new, and innovative ideas and garden-cities along the last centuries explained in ecology social with his liberalist municipalism described as
utopie frontière (frontier utopia)
| [14] | Paquot, T., (2013), “Introduction L'Urbanisme est a Penser”, Repenser l'Urbanisme, sous la direction de Thierry Paquot, İnfolio, Paris. |
[14]
.
During the pandemic, new demand to live in airier and green-areas, live and work in shorter distances due to restrictions, among the people confined to their homes for long periods after the pandemic. This a multi-centered urban model that connected to each other with transportation network. The garden-cities in the past, which offered an ideal model and perfectly adapting to today's pandemic conditions or any future circumstances again.
Figure 1. E. Howard’s Book Garden-Cities To-Morrow, and right a Garden-City Model. Photos, www.gardencitymovement.com.
4. The Garden-City Models and Its Evolution in Years
4.1. The Planning of Settlement Out of the City the Early-Period of Garden-City Models
It is possible to divide this model, which has remained valid almost a century and has re-emerged as popular in different periods. The garden-cities are very popular in approximately along the three different periods;
1) The beginning of the 20th century, when it was first planned in England by E. Howard cities, like, Welwyn, Letchword, etc. in England.
2) In the late 20th century, almost a century after it was first planned it is spread and became known in the worldwide and planned in various cities and countries.
3) The last period is in the first two decades of the 21st century when it came to fore again with the recent pandemic.
The garden-cities, introduced at the beginning of the 20th century, in England by E. Howard, and they became a significant model nearly a century. The garden-city model and planning idea creating independent housing settlements like satellite-cities form developed outside the city center with its specific form of living with green-belts. During the suburbanization of London out of the city center, E. Howard endeavored to solve with an innovative idea the garden-city emerged as original model. These spatially planned independent satellite communities symbolized a greener and sunny life in “nature” surrounding with green-belts. They are vastly symbolizing a living aimed to “environmentally” friendly settlements, abandoned the old congested urban form. This idea supporting the decentralize living, out of the city center, in green-areas.
Figure 5. Garden-Cities, United States, Redburn, New Jersey, Green Hills, Ohio on the rght. Photo, Photo, www.gardencitymovement.com.
E. Howard founded the Garden-City Association on (later known as the Town and Country Planning Association or TCPA), planned first garden-city, the Letchworth, 1889
| [15] | Hardy, D., (1999), 1899–1999, London, England: Town and Country Planning Association. |
[15]
. In 1904, Raymond Unwin, alongside with his partner Barry Parker, won the competition to design the first original garden city, Letchworth, located 34 miles outside London
| [16] | Hall, P., (2002), Cities of Tomorrow (3rd ed.), Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. |
[16]
. R. Unwin and B. Parker planned the town at the center of the Letchworth, surrounded by greenbelts with E. Howard's concept. R. Unwin and B. Parker shared E. Howard’s novel social ideas, emphasizing the people deserved more affordable housing. The garden-cities were spatially independent connected to the city's transport network through railroads, streetcars, and later automobiles. These villages were self-sufficient, featuring a central area with numerous facilities, shops, and civic buildings. In contrast, garden enclaves were residential, emphasizing natural surroundings and private spaces rather than public. The enclaves were regulated by early land-use controls, resembled modern zoning practices. These regulations included controlled setbacks, landscaping, and building materials
| [17] | Stern, R., A., M.; Fishman, D., Tilove, J., (2013). Paradise Planned: The Garden Suburb and the Modern City. The Monacelli Press. pp. 17–19. ISBN 978-1580933261. |
[17]
.
The decentralized garden-cities were not originally part of Howard's plan
| [18] | Hall&Ward, C., (1998), Sociable Cities: the Legacy of Ebenezer Howard, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. |
[18]
. In fact, they were the antithesis of what Howard sought to prevent. Howard’s garden-city model was a solution to the growing suburbanization of London to mitigate his innovative planning. His approach sought to curb urban sprawl by inhibiting land speculation, through the mechanism of holding land in trust and the incorporation of agricultural areas on the city's periphery. Raymond Unwin, as E. Howard's collaborator planned the pioneering Letchworth project in 1907, played a key role the garden-city model on a global scale. Unwin's contributions, with Barry Parker, led to the development of new planning principles: An Introduction to the Art of Designing Cities and Suburbs
| [14] | Paquot, T., (2013), “Introduction L'Urbanisme est a Penser”, Repenser l'Urbanisme, sous la direction de Thierry Paquot, İnfolio, Paris. |
| [16] | Hall, P., (2002), Cities of Tomorrow (3rd ed.), Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. |
[14, 16]
significant influence on urban planning. This book contributed to the Housing and Town Planning Act of 1909, granted municipalities to develop plans for new suburban communities.
| [17] | Stern, R., A., M.; Fishman, D., Tilove, J., (2013). Paradise Planned: The Garden Suburb and the Modern City. The Monacelli Press. pp. 17–19. ISBN 978-1580933261. |
[17]
.
By the end of the 20th century, new and innovative ideas in architecture and urban planning were first significantly pioneered by Reyner Banham in 1969. Banham proposed a concept where technology, human needs, and environmental responsiveness were considered essential to addressing the challenges of environmental degradation. Before Banham, no architect or historian had systematically examined how environmental engineering and services impacted building design
| [7] | Howard, E., (2008), Garden Cities To-Morrow, Biblio-B, London. |
| [8] | Banham, R. (1969), “Architecture of the Well-tempered Environment”; University of Chicago Press, Chicago. |
[7, 8]
. This shift towards green urbanism revived earlier models such as Ebenezer Howard’s
Garden-Cities of To-Morrow 1902, which had a strong political and social agenda that has seen a resurgence in modern urban planning
| [9] | Howard, E., (2008), Reprint 1902/1989). Tomorrow, A Peaceful Path to Real Reform. Garden Cities of Tomorrow; ATC Books/Faber and Faber, London. |
[9]
. The principles of these early garden cities now align with contemporary efforts to develop sustainable and resilient urban environments.
The idea of the garden-city also became influential in the countries, Australia, and United States globally. Examples; Residence Park in New Rochelle, New York; Woodbourne in Boston; Garden City, New York; Sunnyside, Queens; Jackson Heights, Queens; Forest Hills Gardens, in the borough of Queens, New York; Radburn, New Jersey; (
Figure 5); GreenHills, Ohio (
Figure 5); Baldwin Hills Village in Los Angeles. In Australia, the town of Sunshine which is now a suburb of Melbourne in Victoria.
French and German Version of Garden-City Model
During the interwar period of the 20th century, the garden-city models of Ebenezer Howard and Raymond Unwin became a widely adopted urban planning concept across Europe, notably in France and Germany. Although originally an English model, the garden-cities spread throughout Europe and across the globe. These developments took on different regional identities, the garden-cities referred to as
cité-jardins in France and
garten-stads in Germany
| [19] | Coskun, H., (2022), “Sustainable and Resilient Plannings, Developed Housing Models for Istanbul”, International Conference, RRAU, Resilient&Responsible Architecture and Urbanism, 4th Edition, 03-05 December 2021, Ximanen University Malaysia, Southwest Jiatotong University, China, Malaysia, On-Line Conferences. |
[19]
. It is also mentioned that British planner E. Howard visited Germany, where he collaborated with Hermann Muthesius, a key figure in the planning of garden cities in Germany and the founder of the
German Werkbund | [20] | Banham, R., (1999), A Critic Writes, Essays By Banham, Berkeley University of California, ISBN: 9780520219441. |
[20]
.
From the early 20th century to the mid-century, Howard’s English garden-cities continued to be planned on the outskirts of urban areas, where green-areas considered beneficial for human health, with gardens and sunlight
| [7] | Howard, E., (2008), Garden Cities To-Morrow, Biblio-B, London. |
[7]
. These sunny, airy settlements from the early 20th century can be regarded as early examples of today’s green, and sustainable architecture and plannings.
The British urban planning theories and principles first entered the French architecture and planning literature via Léon Jaussely’s translation. L. Jaussely was the first French planner transfer British urban planning principles to the France and his colleague H. Prost was known founders of the urbanism
| [14] | Paquot, T., (2013), “Introduction L'Urbanisme est a Penser”, Repenser l'Urbanisme, sous la direction de Thierry Paquot, İnfolio, Paris. |
[14]
. L. Jaussely first transferred Adshead’s planning techniques from London to Paris with the translation of the book
Town Planning Practice by S. D. Adshead knowledge the theory and practices of European cities like; Berlin, London, and Paris,
| [14] | Paquot, T., (2013), “Introduction L'Urbanisme est a Penser”, Repenser l'Urbanisme, sous la direction de Thierry Paquot, İnfolio, Paris. |
[14]
. E. Howard’s garden-city model, initially developed in Britain, was later adapted in the suburbs of Paris as
cité-jardins (garden-cities) following the prohibition of new housing construction in
périphérie (city walls of Paris)
| [21] | Coskun, H., (2017), “In The Beginning of The 20th Century, Analyzing Methods of The Housing Problem And An Example: Henri Prost’s Istanbul Plannings,” PhD Thesis, 2017, MSGSU, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, The Institute of Science, Faculty of Architecture, Building Design, Istanbul, Türkiye. |
[21]
. In 1919, Léon Jaussely, and Henri Sellier, alongside Henry Expert and Louis Sellier, designed several
cité-jardins in Paris and won first prize for their project
L'Extension et l'Aménagement de la Région Parisienne (The Extension and Planning of the Paris Region). These garden-cities, planned for the outskirts of Paris, followed the principles of Howard’s original garden-city model, and were executed by French architects, including H. Sellier
| [22] | Merlin, P., (1991), Les Villes Nouvelles en France, PUF., Paris. |
[22]
.
Indeed, at the first the French versions
of cité-jardins were not favored by government and they were not allowed in
Le Musée-Sociale (Social Museum) known as a think tank organization
| [23] | Doğrusöz, U., (2016), Interview, Istanbul, 2016. |
[23]
, primary institution in urban planning regulatory and controlling mechanism in Paris city planning
| [24] | Horne J. R., (2002), A Social Laboratory for Modern France, Durham & Duke University Press, London. |
[24]
.
Figure 6. French cite-jardins, (garden-cities), Suresnes and St. Denis. Photos, H. Sellier.
However, this housing model later gained approval from
La Fondation de l'Association des Cité-Jardins (The Foundation of the Garden Cities Association), ssupported by French architects Benoit Lévy and Georges Riesler. These architects played a pivotal role in the implementation of modern
cités-jardins on the outskirts of Paris, beyond the
périphérie (periphery)
| [25] | Sellier, H., (1998), Une Cité Pour Tous, Edition de Linteau, Paris. |
[25]
. Architect and urban planner Henri Sellier designed several
cité-jardins outside Paris, most notably is large-scale project in Suresnes. (
Figure 6)
Although garden-city models became widespread across Europe, particularly in France and Germany, other models were also adopted by numerous architects, including Le Corbusier's CIAM model, by Henri Sellier and Eugène Beaudouin, who designed suburban areas in Paris for low-income families
| [19] | Coskun, H., (2022), “Sustainable and Resilient Plannings, Developed Housing Models for Istanbul”, International Conference, RRAU, Resilient&Responsible Architecture and Urbanism, 4th Edition, 03-05 December 2021, Ximanen University Malaysia, Southwest Jiatotong University, China, Malaysia, On-Line Conferences. |
[19]
. In the 1950s, Paris underwent significant urban development through large-scale projects known as
grands ensembles (large-scale housing complexes), commonly referred to as HLM,
Habitat à Loyer Modéré (Moderate Rent Housing)
| [26] | Guerrand, R., H., (2010), Les Origines de Logement Sociale en France, 1850-1914, Edition De LaVillette, Paris. |
[26]
. This period some competitions organized for the construction of newly developed housing
| [27] | Baratucci, C., (2006), Le Zoning Dans l'Urbanisme Italien et Francais du XX. Siecle, Urbanisme, Septembre-Octobre, 2006, N. 344. |
[27]
. During the 1950s, in the aftermath of World War II,
grands ensembles and HLMs were planned around the suburbs of Paris, with financial resources partly from charitable organizations and foundations
| [28] | Stébé, J., M., (1998), Le Logement Sociale en France, Que Sais-je?, PUF. |
[28]
. Henri Prost's period, Paris expanded transportation network connect the surrounding
cités-jardins (garden cities).
| [29] | Bruant, C., (2011), Eugene Henard, Paquot, Thierry, Les Faiseur De Villes, İnfolie Editions, Paris. |
[29]
.
During this period, the suburbs of Paris were divided into regions that reflected the socio-economic class of the residents. The
cités-jardins (garden cities) were established in the east-west and north-south suburbs, with distinct differences in their planning. While the north-south settlements were designed for lower-income residents, the east-west suburbs catered to wealthier, designed by architects Le Corbusier and André Lurçat. According to Le Corbusier, the garden-cities provided an ideal living environment for working-class families, featuring gardens and plots of land ranging from 300-400 m² to 500 m². He described the residents of these areas as
les banlieusards (suburban dwellers), who lived in housing types, from villas and
pavillons (residences with gardens) to
cités-ouvrières (worker dwellings), depending on their socio-economic status
| [30] | Le Corbusier, (1980), Urbanisme, Champs Arts, Édition Arthaud, Paris. |
[30]
.
Furthermore, planning the houses with gardens originated from Kropotkin's old notion depended on social and economic ideas low-income people, and workers would cultivate their vegetables, to supply fresh food, and clean environment since the beginning of the 20th century
| [31] | Ragon, M., (1986), Histoire de l'Architecture et de l'urbanisme Modernes, 2. Naissance de la Cité Moderne 1900-1940, Casterman, Paris. |
[31]
.
Figure 7. Recent exapmles on garden-cities, Oxfordshire, in England. Photo, www.gardencitymovement.com.
4.2. Transformation of Garden-City Models, After E. Howard
Until 2000s, and pandemic numerous garden cities keep their existence globally. Though many have transformed on inconsiderable and undesirable change and devolved into dormitory suburbs, diverging significantly from Ebenezer Howard’s original social based ideas and vision
| [7] | Howard, E., (2008), Garden Cities To-Morrow, Biblio-B, London. |
[7]
. Since their inception, garden-cities have been widely implemented in various parts of the world, including first in cities in England, Welwyn and Letchworth, then in Europe, France, Germany, in Australia and finally the United States. However, many of these cities remain significant examples for heritage both architectural and urban planning, they will continue to be inspirational examples with transfer to their innovative ideas for future. Recently, many of them transformed to museum or tourism purposes which this situation protects them destruction and keeping this garden-city notion and E. Howard’s ideas live
.
Since the early 20
th century, this old notion the garden-city concept has not been forgotten. Some people, institutions, and local governments try to keep alive this idea with various events or social efforts. Thus, the garden-city ideas remained on the agenda until the 2000s. In 2007, the Town and Country Planning Association (TCPA) celebrated its 108th anniversary by advocating for the application of Garden City and Garden Suburb principles to contemporary New Towns, and "Eco-towns" in the United Kingdom
. This initiative continued in 2013 with the release of the guide "Creating Garden Cities and Suburbs Today: A Guide for Councils," which aimed to support local governments in the implementation of garden-city principles
.
In the 2010s, some institutional efforts for future of garden-cities were continued. In 2014, The Letchworth Declaration
was published, advocating for the creation of an accreditation organization for future garden-cities in the UK. The declaration emphasized both visible elements—such as architecture and layout— including social structures, ownership, and governance. Consequently, the New Garden Cities Alliance was formed as a community interest company. Its mission is to promote the development of future garden cities, complementing organizations like the Town and Country Planning Association (TCPA). This newly adapted garden-city models and principles, as well as ideas from other sources, such as Cabannes and Ross’s 21st Century Garden Cities of Tomorrow
| [35] | Yves, C., Ross, P., (2015). 21st Century Garden Cities of To-morrow: A manifesto. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-291-47827-3. |
[35]
.
In early 2014, 2015 is a considered a new period in the garden-city developments considered some sustainable transformation efforts have been initiated. Indeed, these are very different from their previous social based garden-city notion by E. Howard. Some social based initiators come to fore and started works on garden-cities. Some plans for a new garden-city at Ebbsfleet Valley in Kent, with another expansion in Bicester, Oxfordshire
| [36] | The Telegraph Archive, (2016), "Ebbsfleet: Britain's first new garden city". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2016-09-20. Accessed, June, 25, 2023. |
| [37] | BBC News, (2014), Bicester chosen as new garden city with 13,000 homes". BBC News. 2 December 2014. Archived from the original on 2016-07-17. Accessed, August 1, 2023. |
[36, 37]
. The UK government extended these efforts in 2015, supporting the development of new communities in North Essex and promoting sustainable, environmentally friendly town development in Didcot, Oxfordshire.
. (
Figure 7)
In 2017, with a new garden-city planning approach a new project prepared for new garden villages, each with between 1,500 and 10,000 homes, and garden towns each with more than 10,000 houses were declared by the government
. These smaller projects have been proposed due to opposition of "urban sprawl" in the garden city projects, as well as such quick expansion to small communities. The first wave of villages to be approved by ministers are to be in.
4.3. After 1990s, Garden-Cities as an Innovative Sustainable Housing Model
By the late 20
th century, urban areas and their residents began confronting new challenges, initially linked to global warming and climate-change issues. Indeed, the trajectory of urban planning shifted significantly after the 1990s, with the discipline moving away from older models that proved inadequate in addressing contemporary challenges
| [14] | Paquot, T., (2013), “Introduction L'Urbanisme est a Penser”, Repenser l'Urbanisme, sous la direction de Thierry Paquot, İnfolio, Paris. |
[14]
. The urban planning and architectural dynamics of cities have since undergone rapid evolution, generating new design paradigms focused on innovative urban and housing solutions
| [40] | Coskun, H. (2021), “The Housing Models for Green Architecture; The Come-Back of Garden-Cities First Known As Bank-Houses in Istanbul”, International Conference, GU, Green Architecture, 5th Edition, 06-07 December 2021, Rome La Sapienza University, Rome, ITALY. Published by Axel-Springer, Switzerland. |
[40]
.
By the end of the 1990s, climate change and global warming became the central environmental concerns globally, spurred by the advocacy of environmental activists. The first Earth-Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, 1992 by the United Nations, marked a pivotal moment in addressing these issues, leading to the formulation of Agenda 21
| [41] | Pérouse, J-F., (2014), “Sustainable Development in Istanbul: A Disrupted, Partial and Opportunistic Implementation”, New Istanbul Studies, Metis, First Publication. |
[41]
. This summit catalyzed a shift in how urban living was perceived, sparking debates on sustainable planning, and prompting a re-examination of urban living standards, with a growing emphasis on green architectural designs. Additionally, since the 1990s, there has been a trend of populations moving away from city centers, seeking greener, more livable environments outside urban cores. As early as 2008, it was predicted that the global urban population would surpass the rural population. Projections suggest that by 2025, nearly two-thirds of the world’s population will be living in urban areas, a trend driven by migration from rural to urban environments as people seek better living standards and job opportunities
| [42] | Habitat III, (2016). The United Nations Conference of Housing and Sustainable Urban Development, 17-20 October, https://habitat3.org/ Accessed September 15, 2021. |
[42]
. This shift underscores the urgency of implementing sustainable urban planning solutions to address the environmental and social challenges associated with rapid urbanization.
In the context of recent sustainable developments, urban and housing planning, along with lifestyle choices, have become significant factors contributing to the growth of urban populations and the phenomenon of urban sprawl. These issues, such as increased vehicle traffic, pollution, and the destruction of green spaces which made many cities increasingly uninhabitable, posing serious risks to human health. In response, international organizations like Habitat have addressed these concerns, acknowledging that most of the global population now resides in mega-cities, particularly in densely populated city centers, due to employment opportunities. Meanwhile, many suburban areas have seen rapid expansion as urban centers become less desirable living environments.
According to garden-cities considered as a sustainable model, this concept gained renewed attention long before, particularly after the 1990s. This models as innovative housing design began to re-focus within the broader context of green and sustainable architecture. If considered the garden-cities of the early 20th century—there have been both explicit and implicit mandates for green-cities aimed at reducing the environmental impact of urban environments. These principles have become integral to urban policies worldwide
| [43] | Müller, S. & Mattisek, A., (2018), “Green City: Explorations and Visions of Urban Sustainability”, RCC Perspectives, No. 1, p. 5-14. |
| [44] | Bauer & Melosi, (2012), Cities and Environment, Wiley Online, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118279519.ch20 |
[43, 44]
. Recently referred that the new innovative settlements will be re-planned in the context of garden-cities, some renewing’s soon. This recent resurgence of interest in garden-city models reflects the importance of sustainable urban planning in contemporary government policy, echoing E. Howard’s advocacy for airier, greener, and community-oriented neighborhoods
| [45] | Schuyler, D. (2002), From Garden City to Green City: The Legacy of Ebenezer Howard, Published By, Johns Hopkins. |
[45]
. His ideas, which have endured for over a century, are now discussed in future planning ideas terms of social ecology and liberal municipalism, often referred to as
utopie frontière (frontier utopia)
| [14] | Paquot, T., (2013), “Introduction L'Urbanisme est a Penser”, Repenser l'Urbanisme, sous la direction de Thierry Paquot, İnfolio, Paris. |
[14]
.
Figure 8. The garden-city of Welwyn, the recent come-back of the garden-cities, after the pandemic.
4.4. The COVID-19, and the Pandemic Period Come-Back of the Garden-Cities as a Sustainable and Healthier Model
Garden cities, once considered valuable but largely forgotten housing models of the early 20th century, have seen a resurgence in interest due to the Covid-19 pandemic. The pandemic has triggered a rapid shift in awareness toward these innovative ideas, which are also influenced by ongoing climate-crisis issues. After the strict health measurements and long-term closure in the cities the people began to seek to escape from the cities living airier, greener living environments surrounded by nature. They also started to question the suitability of their densely populated urban settings. While the direct impact of the pandemic may not be considered highly significant, its influence on sustainability and housing trends is becoming increasingly important. This situation led to the reconsideration of the new and innovative ideas which have been experiencing since the last century. Thus, during the pandemic the problems experienced in the cities like heavily urbanization, destruction of green-areas, pollution, and deterioration of air quality that make cities inhabitable places have forced the city planners and administrators to take some urgent precautions. Addressing the ongoing problems experienced in cities, international community of nations, the mayors of prominent cities Paris, Sydney, Tokyo, and Cape Town taken some measures even boasted in the
Financial Times in January 2020 with the boldest ideas, and crucial plans for a sustainable future of the low carbon city and Covid-19
. However, making implementations practically with some significant decisions in cities having such a population as substantial issues was still seen as problematic.
In the awareness of the coronavirus pandemic period, housing priorities have shifted toward airier, greener, and healthy living environments also aligned with sustainable principles. Garden-city models, with their emphasis on residences surrounded by gardens, have seen a resurgence in popularity, reflecting a growing desire for sustainable urban planning spaces
| [47] | United Nations, (2021), Conference Sustainable Development, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 20–22 June 2012. |
[47]
.
This renewed interest in garden-city model and principles is not just about sustainability but also about fostering a healthier relationship between urban dwellers and their environment. In recent years, architects and planners have reevaluated city planning and housing models. The old urban planning and architectural doctrines now far from the sustainable with now well-known negative impacts of urban environments, and cities where the designed for cars rather than people. This have prompted a reaction against the overly technical and modernist approaches of the 1960s, particularly those associated with CIAM, and modern architectural doctrines.
4.5. The Come-Back of the Welwyn City in the Post-Pandemic Period
As a well-known garden-city model Welwyn city which was designed originally by E. Howard at the beginning of the 20th century, in England, has become the center of the point of during the pandemic period. Although Welwyn garden-city is intended to be renewed by emphasizing its more sustainable features such as green areas, parks, pedestrian ways, and bicycle paths, the fact that this coincides with the pandemic period is of particular importance in this context. The issue of renewal of the old town has come to the agenda recently due to the improvement of the environment to create more livable places, made it vibrant to everyone and a much-improved environment for humans, pedestrians, and cyclists with the awareness of the recent COVID-19
| [48] | Smith, M., (2021), “Transformation of the Welwyn Garden City Town, Center Spot The Begin”, Hertslife.com |
[48]
.
The revival of Ebenezer Howard’s Garden-city concept, particularly Welwyn in England, has become emblematic of a renewed focus on sustainable urban development. A recent article in England emphasized that Welwyn, initially designed as a garden-city model by Howard, is slated for renewal as a focal point post-COVID-19
.
(Figure 8) Welwyn Garden City, once an experimental town in community planning, was described by British Newspaper
The Times as a world-famous modern town that led to the New Towns Act, emphasizing the importance of well-planned urban spaces
| [50] | The Times, (1948), Saturday, 3 January 1948, p. 5. |
[50]
. In contrast, Hatfield example, which developed more sporadically, underscored the necessity of such legislation. During the pandemic period this resurgence has drawn attention once again to the importance of garden-cities and has led to their evaluation as a new and innovative model for the future.
4.6. A Case-Study, Istanbul Old Garden-Cities, Transformed to a New Concept Healthy-City
The garden-city concept, an innovative housing model originally develepoed by E. Howard in England, spread throughout Europe, France, Germany, and Italy, and finally was introduced to Istanbul, Türkiye, by French and Italian architects in the early 20th century. French architect-planner Henri Prost developed some derivatives of old E. Howard's garden-city model and French cité-jardins (garden-cities). These earliest garden-city models in Istanbul, developed first in the Kadıköy, Kosuyolu region, were inspired originally by the French cité-jardins
| [19] | Coskun, H., (2022), “Sustainable and Resilient Plannings, Developed Housing Models for Istanbul”, International Conference, RRAU, Resilient&Responsible Architecture and Urbanism, 4th Edition, 03-05 December 2021, Ximanen University Malaysia, Southwest Jiatotong University, China, Malaysia, On-Line Conferences. |
[19]
. Also, a unique model known as the cité-parc (park-city), specifically designed for the groves of Istanbul in the Bosphorus Heights
| [51] | Bilsel, C., (2010), “Henri Prost's Istanbul Planning (1936-1951), Structural Transformation of the City with Master Plans and Urban Operations from the Capital, from the Empire to the Modern City of the Republic”, Henri Prost Istanbul Planning, (1936-1951), IAE., Istanbul. |
| [19] | Coskun, H., (2022), “Sustainable and Resilient Plannings, Developed Housing Models for Istanbul”, International Conference, RRAU, Resilient&Responsible Architecture and Urbanism, 4th Edition, 03-05 December 2021, Ximanen University Malaysia, Southwest Jiatotong University, China, Malaysia, On-Line Conferences. |
[51, 19]
. These models, which were derived from early garden-city settlements, continue to serve as valuable examples in shaping urban planning, particularly during crises such as the pandemic. Since their inception in the early 20
th century, Henri Prost's designs, along with other garden-city models, have played a critical role in Istanbul's urban landscape.
Figure 9. The Healthy-city model after the COVID-19 developed as a unique model for Istanbul a garden-city derivative inspired from E. Howard, in Anatolian Side, Sancaktepe. Photo, DAPYapıwebsite.
The impact of COVID-19 on the global real-estate market, including in Türkiye, was profound, particularly concerning housing models and typologies. The post-pandemic period has seen a notable shift in housing preferences, from high-rise buildings to low-rise with gardens located in green-areas out of the city centers, largely implemented by private developers. Furthermore, in response, the Turkish Builders Association emphasized sustainable and environmentally friendly projects, aimed at meeting the evolving demands of society
. Housing models featuring low-storey structures with gardens, spacious terraces or balconies, and additional office spaces for hybrid working emerged as ideal solutions during the COVID-19 period
| [53] | Coskun, H., (2022), “Sustainability, and Post-Covid 19 Era, Changing Housing Design and Models in the Cities and Istanbul”, CCSE, Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability, 2ndt Edition, 09-10 November, CONGQUING University, CHINA, On-Line Conference. |
[53]
. During the pandemic, as a derivative of the old model the new garden-city settlements developed, symbolizing a healthier way of living under pandemic conditions
| [53] | Coskun, H., (2022), “Sustainability, and Post-Covid 19 Era, Changing Housing Design and Models in the Cities and Istanbul”, CCSE, Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability, 2ndt Edition, 09-10 November, CONGQUING University, CHINA, On-Line Conference. |
[53]
. The "healthy-city" concept has since been adopted and developed in regions such as Levent on the European side of Istanbul, and Pendik and Sancaktepe on the Anatolian side in the outside of the city center as airier and greener areas. (
Figure 9) This idea also used in urban planning terminology accepted by WHO, as a laboratory for the lifestyle targets agreed for Europe, right to support integrated approaches to health promotion at the city level.
| [54] | Ashton, J., Grey, P., Barnard, K.,. (1986) “” Health Promotion International, 1(3): 319-324, 1986. Achieved October, 17, 2023. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthy_city |
[54]
. This is also considered to be a concept that can be evaluated in the context of newly developed models of old garden-cities.
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